Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the U.S. government decreed that all persons of Japanese descent living in the United States, whether or not they were citizens, were subject to internment in concentration camps. While this effort was directed primarily towards that living west of the Mississippi, all Japanese were affected. At that time, many enclaves of Japanese-Americans thrived in American cities, managing to build a life that fit into the surrounding society. The subsequent fear and rejection of anyone with Japanese ancestry reflected a decline in ____.